This is a freely translated version of a lecture originally delivered by Ostad Nasrollah Nasehpour and subsequently published in the prestigious Iranian music journal Honar-e-Musighi. The reference for the publication is as follows:

Nasehpour, N. (2002). Impact of Persian Music on Other Cultures and Vice Versa. Art of Music, Cultural, Art and Social (Monthly), 37(September), 4-6.

Introduction. To examine Persian music, it is essential to first explore the musical traditions of neighboring countries. These nations have either influenced Persian music or been shaped by it, as many were once part of Iran in ancient times or have remained adjacent to its borders. Beyond these regional connections, Iran's geographical position between East and West has led to frequent cultural exchanges, as various migrating tribes left lasting imprints on Persian musical heritage. Both of these influences - the impact of neighboring cultures and the broader exchanges facilitated by Iran's location - warrant close examination. While a comprehensive discussion of these complex interactions is beyond the scope of this note, we will strive to highlight the mutual influences as thoroughly as possible.

Persian music's mutual impact on world cultures

Persian culture is among the most ancient in the world. While detailed records from its earliest eras are scarce, existing evidence suggests the presence of a well-integrated musical tradition in ancient Persia. The oldest known artifact supporting this claim is a cylindrical stamp, dating back to the 5th millennium BC, discovered at "Choghamish چغامیش" near "Dezful دزفول". This remarkable relic depicts the world's earliest known musical ensemble, consisting of a harpist and a drummer. See History of Persian Vocal Music.

On the other hand, Persian music may have been influenced by Indian musical traditions, which are also connected to the music of Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. This cultural exchange is not a recent phenomenon, as historical records provide evidence of such interactions. A notable example is a treatise by "Abu Reyhan Biruni ابوریحان بیرونی" with the title "Mal ol-Hind ماللهند", which offers valuable insights into the connections between Persian and Indian culture.

The influence of Indian music on Persian music has been evident since ancient times, particularly through shared Aryan musical traditions. One of the most famous historical accounts is the story of Indian gypsies, in which "Bahram Gour بهرام گور" requested his father-in-law, the monarch of India, to send twelve thousand musicians to Persia to entertain the Persian people with Indian music. This exchange left a lasting imprint on Persian musical traditions.

The presence of Indian musical instruments such as the "van ون" and "darai درای" in Persia further attests to this influence. Additionally, several musical pieces such as "Ramkali رامکلی" in "Abu Ata ابوعطا", "Denasari دناصری" in "Homayoun همایون", "Rak-e-Abdollah راک عبدالله", "Rak-e-Hindi راک هندی", and "Rak-e-Kashmir راک کشمیر" in "Mahour ماهور" and "Rast-Panjgah راست‌پنچگاه" serve as examples of this cultural crossover. It should be noted that "Ramkali" and "Denasari" are Indian "ragas" (modes), while the word "Rak راک" is the Arabic adaptation of "rag راگ", a term closely related to the Persian word "rang رنگ"  meaning color.

However, Persian music has had an even greater impact on Indian musical traditions. This influence is largely attributed to the presence of Persian musicians at Akbar Shah's court. The presence of "Amir Khosrow Dehlavi امیر خسرو دهلوی", the Persian-speaking poet, singer, and composer is also a notable example of mutual impact of the mentioned cultures. Contemporary Indian music is structured around two primary styles: Hindustani and Karnatic "Sangeet". The Hindustani style, prevalent in northern India, developed under the influence of Persian music. Indian vocal styles such as "Qawwali قوالی", "Ghazal غزل", and "Tarana ترانه" all have deep roots in Persian music.  

Furthermore, the Indian "sitar" traces its origins to the Persian "setar سه‌تار", though it has undergone modifications to better suit Indian musical aesthetics. Recent research suggests that the Indian "tabla" evolved from a combination of three instruments: the Iranian "naghareh نقاره", the Iranian/Indian "doholak دهلک", and the Indian "pakhavaj". Additionally, the presence of Iranian and Arabic musical terms such as "saz ساز" (instrument) and "mezrab مضراب" (plectrum) further reflects the enduring Persian influence on Indian music. See Persian Lutes. While a more detailed exploration of these musical exchanges would provide deeper insight, delving further into this topic would diverge from our primary discussion.

Given China's decisive role in cultural and musical exchange, its influence must also be acknowledged. Several Persian musical instruments that made their way to China evolved under the influence of Chinese musical traditions. One notable example is the Chinese suona, which traces its origins to the Persian oboe called "sorna سرنا" and shares certain characteristics with the Indian oboe called "shahnay". Another significant case is the Persian barbat (Persian lute), which was introduced to China, where it became known as pipa.

Regarding the musical exchange between Persia and Japan, it is worth noting that the Chinese pipa, which originated from the Persian barbat, was later introduced to Japan, where it became known as biwa. Additionally, an instrument closely resembling the Persian "tonbak تنبک", called shuhai-gata-katamen-taiko, is played in Japan. Meanwhile, in Iran's Sistan-Baluchistan province, the instrument known as "binjo بینجو" is believed to be of Japanese origin, further reflecting the deep historical connections between these two musical traditions.

The culture of the Uyghur Turks has been profoundly influenced by Persian traditions, to the extent that it can be considered a Persianate culture. One of the strongest indicators of this influence is the presence of Persian musical instruments such as the "tar تار", "khoshtar خوشتار", and "dap دپ" in Uyghur music. Additionally, Uyghur music follows the "magham مقام" system, consisting of 12 distinct maghams. This structure is believed to have originated from the renowned Persian 12-magham system, further highlighting the deep cultural and musical connections between the two traditions.

Having explored the shared musical heritage of eastern Iran, we now turn to western Iran. Studies conducted by various researchers suggest that Greek music traces its origins to the Orient. Similarly, Turkish music shares such profound similarities with Persian music that they can scarcely be considered independent traditions. In this sense, Persian music serves as a foundational element of Turkish and Greek musical heritage. For instance, the Greek goblet drum known as toubeleki belongs to the same family as the Turkish dumbelek and is believed to have originated from the Persian tonbak (also known as "dombak دمبک"). Note that the term "dombalak دمبلک" which is a Pahlavi (Middle Persian) word is the origin of the word dombak, further underscoring this connection.

Additionally, following the expansion of Islamic civilization, Greek texts on theoretical music were translated into Arabic and Persian and became widely used, leaving a lasting impact on the musical scholarship of the Islamic world. This influence reflects the complex and dynamic exchanges that shaped the development of musical traditions across different regions.

A crucial aspect of this discussion is the music of Arabic-speaking countries. Historically, many contributions to Islamic civilization have been attributed solely to the Arabs by certain biased historians, often based on the fact that key texts were written in Arabic. As a result, the significant role of Persians in shaping Islamic culture has frequently been overlooked or diminished. See History of Persian Mathematics.

The flourishing of Islamic civilization between the 9th and 11th centuries was largely driven by the dedicated efforts of Persian scholars, whose contributions played a vital role in shaping its intellectual and artistic legacy. Furthermore, what is today recognized as Arab music has deep-rooted origins in the musical traditions of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Persia, highlighting the diverse influences that have shaped its development over time.

Following the collapse of Assyrian and Babylonian rule in the 6th century BC, the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Persia merged, forming a unified and richer cultural tradition.

Persian music also significantly influenced Egyptian musical heritage. The presence of Persian instruments such as the "kamancheh کمانچه" (Persian spike fiddle) and "santoor سنتور" (Persian hammered dulcimer), along with various Persian musical modes - including "chahargah چهارگاه", "sehgah سه‌گاه", "Isfahan اصفهان", "Nahavand نهاوند", "souznak سوزناک", "rast راست", "basteh-negar بسته نگار", and "souz-e del سوزِ دل" - provides strong evidence of this influence. Additionally, the santoor (hammered dulcimer) and its various adaptations are widely played across China, India, Iraq, Hungary, Romania, and Germany, highlighting its extensive cultural influence.

Western musical instruments also have deep roots in Oriental traditions. During the Middle Ages, many European instruments were introduced to Europe by Muslims traveling from Asia through Byzantine lands and North Africa. The Persian barbat, known as "Al-oud العود" in Arab-speaking regions, was later adopted in Europe under the name lute. Over time, it underwent modifications, ultimately evolving into the modern guitar and mandolin. Notably, the guitar bears a resemblance to the Persian stringed instrument tar (literally meaning "string"), and the presence of the word "tar" within the word "guitar" is not merely coincidental.

It is well established that the structural foundation of the piano can be traced back to the santoor. Similarly, the Turkish and Arabic zurna originated from the Persian sorna.

Notably, many percussion instruments were introduced to the West from the Orient. The French word tabor, referring to an instrument played in Europe during the Middle Ages, has been shown to derive from the Persian "tabireh تبیره". Additionally, the history of Western music reveals that the kettledrum, known as naker, served as the precursor to the modern timpani. The term naker itself originates from "naghareh نقاره", an instrument brought to Europe through Ottoman martial music.

Various types of frame and goblet drums also have their roots in the Middle East. For instance, the North African instrument bendayer, also known as bendir, shares the same lineage as the Persian frame drum dayereh. This instrument was introduced to Spain and Portugal by Muslims, eventually making its way to Brazil, where it became known as pandeiro. Furthermore, the Galician and Portuguese square drum called "adufe" traces its origins to the Oriental drum "al-duf الدُف", highlighting the deep historical connections between European and Middle Eastern musical traditions.

Now we examine the influence of Western music on Persian music over the past two centuries. This impact can be traced back to the Qajar era. During the reign of Fathali Shah Qajar, as Iran's ruling system and military adopted European practices and were equipped with cannons and firearms, traditional martial musical instruments - primarily performed in "naghareh-khanehs نقاره‌خانه‌ها" (centers dedicated to playing "naghareh نقاره") - were gradually replaced. Consequently, "naghareh-khanehs" gave way to new martial musical arrangements.

Between the two world wars, when relations between Iran and Tsarist Russia were relatively cordial, a Russian delegation led by an ambassador plenipotentiary arrived in Tehran via Tabriz. Accompanying the delegation was a 30-member orchestra, which performed in Tabriz for Crown Prince "Abbas Mirza عباس میرزا" and, later, for Fathali Shah, who resided in Soltaniyeh, Zanjan. Upon hearing the performances, Abbas Mirza became intrigued by the musical instruments used. After gathering extensive information, he decided to establish a martial music orchestra in line with modern styles. This marked the beginning of Western musical influences on Persian music.

Subsequently, a new department was added to "Dar ul-Fonun دارالفنون", dedicated to training musicians in modern martial music. French musician Alfred Lemaire was appointed as a music master to lead these efforts. In 1918, General Gholam-Reza Minbashiyan proposed the establishment of a dedicated music school to further institutionalize modern musical education in Iran.

For the first time, a book on the theory of western music was translated into Persian by "Mirza Ali Akbar Khan میرزا علی اکبر خان" entitled to "Naqqash-Bashi نقاش‌باشی", and also, "Mozayanoddoleh مزین‌الدوله", a multi-talented French-educated musicologist and painting instructor at Dar ul-Fonun. The translation was published at the school's printing house, making Western musical theories more accessible to Iranian students and scholars.

The introduction of the piano to Iran occurred during the reign of Fathali Shah. "Mohammad Sadeq Khan Sorour ol-Molk محمدصادق خان سرورالملک", a distinguished "santoor" player, was the first to adapt the instrument's tuning to Persian musical intervals, further merging Western musical elements with Persian traditions.

The European instrument violin, became widely used in Iran during the reign of Nassereddin Shah following the establishment of Dar ul-Fonun. It was soon integrated into Iranian orchestras, influencing the development of native instruments. Inspired by the violin's structure, a fourth string was later added to the kamancheh, further enriching its tonal range and adaptability.

Over time, Persian music has increasingly absorbed influences from Western musical traditions, to the extent that traces of this impact can be observed even in the most traditional forms of contemporary Persian music. The most notable aspects of this influence can be summarized as follows:

• The development of new musical forms during the late Qajar era, such as "pish-daramad پیش‌درآمد" (overture). For more see Rhythmic forms in Persian art music.

• Changes in singing and instrumental performance styles

• Adaptation of various ensemble-playing techniques

• Incorporation of Western musical genres, including martial music, waltz, polka, and more

• The establishment of chamber and symphonic orchestras

• The introduction of opera and ballet groups

• The founding of music schools and the adoption of Western teaching methods

• The practice of writing musical notation

• Increased academic study and research on music

Since an extensive discussion of all the above points is beyond our scope, only a few key aspects will be briefly highlighted.

At the music courses initiated by "Salar Moazzez سالار معزز", in addition to martial music, other branches of Western music were introduced, attracting civilian trainees to the school.

In 1923, the Higher School of Music (in Persian مدرسه عالی موسیقی) was established under the supervision of "Ali-Naqi Vaziri علی‌نقی وزیری", a musician trained in Persian music by Iranian masters who had also studied Western music in Germany and France. Drawing inspiration from Western educational music texts, Vaziri compiled and published a book in Berlin on performing both European and Persian music with the "tar", which he played in a remarkably innovative manner. Inspired by Western classical music, Vaziri introduced new fingering techniques, expanded its melodic range, and modernized its playing style, bringing a fresh approach to Persian classical music. He also developed a Persian music theory that integrated Western perspectives, introducing a redesigned 24-part scale as one of its key innovations. Notably, a similar concept had been proposed earlier in Oriental music by the 19th-century Lebanese-Egyptian music theorist and mathematician "Mikhail Mishaqa ميخائيل مشاقة". Vaziri, in turn, aimed to refine Persian musical intervals to more closely resemble the 12-part Western scale, aligning them with the principles of harmony.

Regarding the formation of orchestras, the Okhovvat Society Orchestra (in Persian ارکستر انجمن اخوت) conducted by "Darvish Khan درویش خان", stands out as the first ensemble of Persian instruments influenced by Western music. The inclusion of Western instruments such as the violin and piano ultimately paved the way for the establishment of the orchestra at Vaziri's music school.

The idea of introducing opera to Iran likely emerged among Iranian artists approximately 70-80 years ago. During the early years of the Constitutional era, when stage performances gained popularity, the concept of musical dramas also captured the interest of Iranian artists. In fact, operas and operettas were introduced to Iran by Caucasian musicians residing in the country, contributing to the development of harmonized compositions based on Persian music.  

This brief overview underscores the need for a comprehensive, multidimensional study to further explore the connections between Persian music and the musical traditions of other cultures. Fortunately, the ongoing dialogue among civilizations provides researchers worldwide with valuable opportunities for such investigations, provided that fundamental principles and diverse perspectives are acknowledged and respected.

The image depicting Persian musicians and dancers from the Sasanian era is sourced from Wikipedia.