Given the rich and extensive history of Persian vocal music, a comprehensive study would necessitate a voluminous monograph. Consequently, crafting a concise summary is both challenging and time-consuming, as it requires precision to accurately explain key points. This brief note serves as an overview of the history of Persian vocal music, aiming to highlight the key developments and influences that have shaped it over the centuries.

Persian vocal music has a rich history that dates back thousands of years. One of the earliest representations of musical performance is found in the "Protoliterate Orchestra Seal Impression from Chogha Mish", dating back to around 3400 BC.

In this seal impression, one man is depicted playing a four-stringed harp, marking its first known appearance as part of an ensemble. Below him, another man extends his arms over the flat top of an object, which, though not fully preserved on the seal, is reconstructed as a drum. A third man holds two horn-shaped objects, with the narrow end of one touching his mouth, indicating he is blowing into it while holding the other in reserve, possibly of a different pitch. The fourth individual places his hand against his cheek in a gesture familiar among both ancient and modern Near Eastern singers. The gesture of vocalists placing their hands on their cheeks is a technique used to help them feel the vibrations and resonance of their voice more clearly. This scene is considered the earliest known representation of an ensemble featuring the essential elements of an orchestra: musicians playing string, percussion, and wind instruments, accompanied by a vocalist (see pp. 147-148 in [DKA]).

Gatha music in Persia is deeply rooted in the Zoroastrian tradition, specifically tied to the Gathas, a collection of 17 hymns generally believed to have been composed by Zarathustra. Dating back to around 1200 BC, these hymns form the core of Zoroastrian liturgy and are considered some of the oldest religious texts in the world. The tradition of reciting the Gathas has been preserved over centuries, maintaining a vital link to ancient Persian culture and religious practices. Today, various recordings and performances of the Gathas often incorporate traditional Persian musical instruments and modern compositions, bringing these ancient hymns to contemporary audiences.

Greek writers provided much information about Achaemenid Persia, including its music. They consistently reported the presence of many women vocalists. Xenophon (ca. 430-after 356 BC), who visited Persia in 401 BC, mentioned many women vocalists at the Achaemenid court. Athenaios of Naucratis (3rd century CE?) wrote about a court vocalist who warned the king of the Medes about Cyrus II's plans. He also mentioned that the Macedonian general Parmenio captured 329 girl vocalists from the court of Darius III and that a royal officer in Babylon had 150 girl vocalists at his table.

A 2nd-century CE stone frieze at a temple in Hatra (a significant city within the Parthian Empire) shows a wedding procession. Among the celebrants is a singer surrounded by musicians playing tambourines, a 13-pipe syrinx, a transverse flute, double and single reed pipes, and a trumpet (see pp. 156-165 in [R]).

During the Sassanian Empire (224-651 CE), Persian music flourished. According to the Arab author Masʿudi (d. 956), music was highly valued at court, and Ardashir I (d. 242), the founder of the Sassanian dynasty, created a special class for vocalists, minstrels, and musicians (see p. 22 in [B1]). Two centuries later, Bahram V Gur (r. 420-438) elevated this class to the highest rank (see p. 31 in [C]). He was fond of music and recruited 12,000 singers from India. In the dialogue within the "Khosrow and Ridag" manuscript, written in the Pahlavi language, Ridag explores various aspects of Sasanian culture, including music. He details the types of songs and musical performances that were popular at the time, showcasing the sophisticated tastes of the Sasanian court. The court musician Barbad, known for his skills as a composer, poet, and vocalist, made significant contributions to Persian music theory and practice. His role as a vocalist was integral to his performances, often accompanying his singing with the barbat, an ancient lute-like instrument. Another prominent musician during the Sassanian era, often mentioned alongside Barbad, is Nakisa (also known as Nagisa). She was a court vocalist and harpist serving in the royal court of Khosrow II (r. 590–628 CE), also known as "Khosrow Parviz".

Imaginative music is a type of music designed to evoke images or convey the impression of events, stories, or scenes without directly mentioning them. This genre often includes notes carefully provided by the composer to guide the listener's imagination.

To give an example of imaginative music, the late Maestro Nasrollah Nasehpour often mentioned the music performed by Barbad about the famous horse of Khosrow Parviz. This story is an ancient example of imaginative music, where Barbad cleverly conveyed the news of the death of Shabdiz without directly mentioning it.

Shabdiz was the famous black stallion of Khosrow Parviz. The name "Shabdiz" means "night-colored" or "black," and the horse was reputed to be the fastest in the world according to ancient Persian literature.

According to the story, Khosrow Parviz was so fond of his horse Shabdiz that he declared anyone who brought news of its death would be executed. After the death of Shabdiz, Barbad performed a very sorrowful piece for Khosrow Parviz and subtly hinted at the news. Khosrow Parviz understood and wept, saying, "Shabdiz is dead!" Barbad then replied, "The king has said it", thus saving his own life. The oldest version of this story is found in the Arabic poetry of Khalid ibn Fayyaz. [B2].

Despite the political changes after the fall of the Sassanian Empire, Persian court music continued to thrive. Musicians and poets were patronized by various Islamic dynasties, including the Abbasids. Vocal music, often accompanied by instruments, remained an essential part of courtly entertainment and ceremonies. A celebrated Persian musician at the court of Harun al-Rashid, Ebrahim Mawseli (742-803), was known for his exceptional vocal and instrumental skills. His son, Eshaq (767-850), was also a renowned musician and vocalist, continuing his father's legacy at the Abbasid court. The other prominent musician in the court of Harun al-Rashid was Ziryab (c. 789 - c. 857), a talented and gifted student of Eshaq Mawseli. Ziryab's exceptional talent in singing, poetry, oud playing, and fashion eventually led him to the court of Abd-Al Rahman II in Córdoba, Andalus.

One of the most important figures of medieval Persia is Rudaki (c. 858 - 940/941), often considered the father of Persian poetry. Rudaki was a court poet, singer, and harpist under the Samanids (819-999). His works laid the foundation for Persian poetry, blending lyrical beauty with musical innovation.

Persian scholars such as Farabi (c. 870 - 950 or 951), Safi al-Din Urmawi (1216-1294), and Qutb al-Din Shirazi (1236-1311) made significant contributions to the understanding of music theory including vocal music in their treatises [N1]. Farabi, in his Kitab al-Musiqi al-Kabir, explored various aspects of vocal music, including the relationship between music and language. Safi al-Din Urmawi, in his works like Kitab al-Adwar, specifically mentioned and cultivated vocal forms such as sawt, qawl, and nawba.

Abd al-Qadir Maraghi (d. 1435), was a prominent Persian music theorist, composer, oud player, and vocalist. He extensively explained vocal music in his treatises. His works, such as Jame' al-Alhan and Maqasid al-Alhan include detailed discussions on various aspects of vocal music. These treatises cover the structure and content of different musical forms, including vocal compositions like tasnif (a type of Persian song) and amal (a significant form in old Persian music).

In Safavid era (1501-1736), music was not only a form of entertainment but also a means of cultural expression and political power. The presence of musicians and singers at the court reflected the importance of music in Safavid society. Miniature paintings from this period often depict singers and instrumentalists, showcasing the integral role of music in Persian art and culture.

In the historical works Tarikh-e Alam-ara-ye Abbasi by Iskandar Beg Munshi (1561/62 – 1633/34) and Khold-e Barin by Mohammad Yusef Valeh, five notable vocalists are mentioned: Hafez Ahmad Qazvini, Hafez Laleh Tabrizi, Hafez Mozaffar Ghomi, Hafez Jalajel Bakharzi, and Hafez Hashem Qazvini. During the Safavid era, "Hafez" was a title given to vocalists. These five singers were celebrated for their contributions to Persian vocal music, reflecting the rich tradition of musical artistry at the time (see p. 158 in [M2]).

The Safavid era was marked by significant cultural exchange between Persia and India. In the first wave of immigration during this period, 12 notable musicians, including vocalists such as Pirzadeh, Hafez Sultan Hussein, and Mulla Qasem Arsalan, moved to India. This migration enriched Indian music by blending Persian influences with local traditions. In the second wave of immigration, the vocalist Shamimi Yazdi also relocated to India, further contributing to this cultural fusion (see Section 4 in [M2]).

Music played a crucial role in ta'zieh, the religious theater that became prominent in post-Safavid times. In Persia from the late sixteenth century, numerous ta'zieh singers studied with vocal and instrumental masters of the time. These masters imparted their knowledge of traditional Persian music, ensuring that the ta'zieh singers were well-versed in both vocal techniques and the use of musical instruments.

Sufism, a mystical branch of Islam, has significantly influenced the development of Persian vocal music. Sufi poetry and music, including the recitation of mystical verses and hymns, became widely popular. The use of music in Sufi rituals, such as the Sama (spiritual listening), emphasized the spiritual and emotional dimensions of vocal music.

A prominent example of a Sufi vocalist is Moshtaq Ali Shah of 18th century (also known as Mirza Mohammad Torbati, died in 1792), a distinguished Sufi mystic, vocalist, and setar player from Kerman, Iran. He is celebrated for his profound contributions to Persian music and Sufism. Moshtaq Ali Shah is particularly renowned for his mastery of the setar, to which he added a fourth string. His vocal performances, often accompanied by his setar playing, were deeply spiritual and expressive, reflecting his mystical beliefs [E].

Karim Khan Zand, the founder of the Zand dynasty, is well-known for his support of the arts, including music. During his reign from 1751 to 1779, he made Shiraz his capital and transformed it into a cultural hub. He encouraged musicians, poets, and artists, fostering a vibrant cultural scene. Molla Fatemeh was a notable vocalist during the Zand era, as mentioned by Mohammad Hashem Asef in his historical work, Rostam al-Tavarikh. Her recognition highlights the rich cultural and artistic environment fostered by Karim Khan Zand, who was known for his patronage of the arts, including music.

During the Qajar era (1789–1925), vocal music in Persia experienced significant development and diversification. This period saw the formalization of the radif, a collection of old melodies that form the basis of Persian classical music. Vocalists would learn these melodies and use them as a foundation for improvisations.

One of the most prominent vocalists of the Qajar era was Haj Molla Abdolkarim Jenab Qazvini (d. 1908). He was a student of the renowned Persian vocalist Aghajan Savehie and distinguished tar master Gholamhossein Farahani. Jenab Qazvini played a significant role in the development and continuity of Persian vocal music during this period. Jenab was known for his contributions to ta'zieh (religious theater) and other forms of vocal music in the Qajar court. He trained numerous students, including Ali Khan Nayeb al-Saltaneh, Ghorban Khan Shahi, Seyed Ahmad Khan Savehie (1852-1940), Abolhasan Eqbal Azar (1853-1971), and Aref Qazvini (1882-1934). To clarify the importance of his role in Persian vocal music education, we can highlight some of his students:

• Ali Khan Nayeb al-Saltaneh, who lived for more than 80 years and passed away towards the end of the Qajar dynasty, was one of the finest and strongest vocalists of his time. His students included notable figures such as Abdollah Davami (1891–1980) and Ezzat Rouhbakhsh (1908–1989), both of whom made significant contributions to Persian music. Note that Ezzat Rouhbakhsh was a maternal aunt of Mahin Oskouei (1931-2006), a pioneering figure in Iranian theater, and Pouran Shapouri (1934-1990), a celebrated Iranian singer.

• Ghorban Khan Shahi was a distinguished vocalist and musician, known for his contributions to the traditional music of Iran. His recordings, some of which date back to the early 20th century, have been preserved and are considered valuable examples of Persian classical singing.

• Seyed Ahmad Khan Savehie (1852-1940) was a notable vocalist during the Qajar era. He was known for his exceptional talent in Persian classical music and his ability to perform complex vocal techniques. His song "Shahe Ma Rafteh Safar" is one of the oldest Persian songs recorded during the Qajar era.

• Abolhasan Eqbal Azar (1853–1971) was a renowned Iranian vocalist and master of Persian classical music. He is celebrated for his exceptional vocal abilities and his significant contributions to the preservation and promotion of traditional Persian music. His main students include Reza Qoli Mirza Zelli, Moluk Zarrabi, Ebrahim Bouzari, Sodeif Rambod, Ataollah Omidvar, and Karim Saleh-Azimi.

• Aref Qazvini (1882–1934) was a renowned Iranian poet, lyricist, and vocalist, celebrated for his deeply patriotic and revolutionary poetry. Reza Qoli Mirza Zelli (1906-1946), a notable Iranian singer, studied under the guidance of both Eqbal Azar and Aref Qazvini. This mentorship significantly influenced his musical style and contributed to his prominence in Persian classical music. 

Seyed Abdolrahim Esfahani (1853-1936) was a pivotal figure in Persian vocal music during the Qajar era. His influence extended through his role as a mentor to several celebrated Iranian vocalists, including Jenab Damavandi (1867-1973), Hossein Taherzadeh (1882-1955), Habib Shater Haji (c. 1882 - c. 1339), Ismail Adib Khansari (1901-1982), and Jalal al-Din Taj Esfahani (1903-1981).

Among the many wonderful vocalists of the Qajar era such as Reza Qoli Khan Tajrishi (1871-1932) and Seyed Zein al-'abedin Qorab (the father of Hossein Qorab, a post-Persian Constitutional Revolution vocalist), one should also consider Ali Asghar Kordestani (1881 - d. after 1944). He was a remarkable vocalist known for his unique ability to sing Persian dastgah music in the Kurdish language, which set him apart from his contemporaries. His voice was recorded on several occasions, making him one of the first Kurdish singers to have his voice preserved in this way. His contributions to both Kurdish and Persian music have left a lasting legacy, and his recordings continue to be appreciated by music enthusiasts and researchers today. The other notable Persian vocalist of this time was Hossein Ali Nakisa Tafreshi (1879-1976), who was distinguished for his unique style.

The oldest instrumental radifs that are still widely used by students of Persian music are those of Mirza Abdollah Farahani, and his brother, Mirza Hossein-Qoli Farahani. These radifs, particularly for instruments like the tar and setar, have been preserved and passed down through generations, forming a crucial part of traditional Persian music education [N2]. On the other hand, the most popular and standard vocal radif repertoire is the radif formed and founded by Abdollah Davami, based on Mirza Hossein-Qoli's instrumental radif. Abdollah Davami instructed many students, among whom we may mention prominent vocalists such as Fakhereh Saba (1920-2007), Mahmoud Karimi (1927-1984), Khadijeh Ashraf o-Sadat Mortezaie (1924-2010) [better known as Marziyeh], and Nasrollah Nasehpour (1940-2023) [L]. Nasrollah Nasehpour played a crucial role in promoting Abdollah Davami's vocal radif and ensuring its transmission to future generations. His dedication to teaching and performing Davami's radif helped to preserve this important aspect of Persian classical music. Nasrollah Nasehpour always emphasized the importance of studying the works of the great vocalists of the past including Abdollah Davami and his comprehensive radif, Hossein Taherzadeh, renowned for his flawless technique and expressive tahrir (melismatic singing), Abolhasan Eqbal Azar, Mirza Reza Qoli Zelli, and Qamar al-Moluk Vaziri. In the album Bidardelan, Mohammad Molla Aghaei (a student of Nasrollah Nasehpour) performed Avaz-e Esfahan inspired by a work by Reza Qoli Mirza Zelli upon his teacher's recommendation. In the same album, he re-sang three old tasnifs of Persian classical music.

Qamar-ol-Moluk Vaziri (1905-1959), commonly known as Qamar, was a celebrated Iranian singer. She was a pioneering figure in Persian vocal music. Known as the "Queen of Persian music", Qamar had a powerful voice and was renowned for her mastery of the Persian vocal repertoire. Nasrollah Nasehpour referred to Hengameh Akhavan (a student of Iranian distinguished singer, Ismail Adib Khansari) as the "second Qamar" due to her dedication to preserving and promoting the vocal traditions established by Qamar-ol-Moluk Vaziri. This title highlights Akhavan's significant role in continuing Qamar's legacy in Persian classical music. Another Iranian singer who has dedicated her life to preserving and promoting Qamar's tradition in Persian vocal music is Pantea Alvandipour [G], a student of Nasrollah Nasehpour.

Another pioneering female singer of the time was Batool Abbasi (1904-1984), known by her stage name Roohangiz. Roohangiz was one of the first singers to participate in Iranian dyadic songs, composed by Colonel Ali-Naqi Vaziri (1886-1979). She is also considered one of the first singers to perform songs for children. Batool Rezaei (1910-1933), known by her stage name Parvaneh, along with her daughter Aqdas Khavari, known by her stage name Khatereh Parvaneh (1930-2008), were also celebrated female vocalists. Parvaneh learned vocal music from the court singers Akram al-Dauleh and Reza Qoli Khan Tajrishi. She was the first person to have her setar playing recorded and the first to have her singing recorded simultaneously with her playing.

To mention another prominent female singer, Moluk Zarrabi (1907-2000) should be included. A student of Taherzadeh and Eqbal Azar, Moluk Zarrabi was a celebrated Persian classical music singer. Her grandfather, Haji Jafar Bolbol, was a vocalist in Naser al-Din Shah Qajar's court. She performed with many renowned musicians and was a significant figure in the "Golha" radio programs.

On April 24, 1940, Tehran officially launched its radio broadcasting, marking the birth of Radio Iran. This station significantly influenced the country's cultural and informational spheres. Notably, several Persian classical music vocalists, including Hosein Ghavami (1909-1990), Gholam Hossein Banan (1911-1986), Marziyeh, and Younes Dardashti (1909-1996), rose to iconic status through their performances on Radio Iran. Shortly thereafter, other celebrated vocalists like Mohammad Reza Shajarian (1940-2020) popularized classical Persian vocal music among the general public by recording numerous cassettes and later CDs, as well as performing extensively in concerts.

Fakhereh Saba, Monir Vakili (1924-1983), and Evelyn Baghtcheban (1928-2010) were instrumental in establishing opera in Tehran. Fakhereh Saba, as Iran's first female opera singer, played a crucial role in promoting both opera and Western classical music in the country. Monir Vakili was among the first Iranian singers to popularize Persian folk songs both domestically and internationally. Evelyn Baghtcheban, a Turkish-Iranian mezzo-soprano, co-founded the Tehran Opera House at Rudaki Hall (now Vahdat Hall) and also established the Tehran Choral Group. She trained numerous opera singers, including Hossein Sarshar, Mohammad Nouri, Sudabeh Tajbakhsh, Pari Samar, Pari Zangeneh, and Gitti Khosravi.

Iran's music scene has been blessed with a wealth of talented vocalists and musicians who have preserved and enriched the country's diverse musical heritage. Here are a few to highlight: Nasser Massoudi (a renowned singer from Rasht, often referred as the "Nightingale of Guilan"), Shapour Jafroudi (a Gilak music singer, poet, lyricist, composer, and theater actor), Haj Ghorban Soleimani and Gholamali Pouratayi (two great masters of dotar and prominent figures in music of Khorasan), Nazarli Mahjubi (a great master of dotar and a distinguished figure of Turkmen music), Sima Bina (renowned for her extensive work in preserving and promoting Persian folk music), Din Mohammad Zangshahi (a great master of gheychak and a significant figure in Baluchi music), Faraj Alipour (a great master of kamancheh and a prominent figure in Lori music), Ashiq Rasoul Ghorbani and Ashiq Hassan Eskandari (two great masters of qopuz and notable for their work in Azerbaijani music), Amir Hayati (a prominent tanbour player and magham singer), and finally, Seyed Khalil Alinezhad (a master of the tanbour, magham singer, and a key figure in Kurdish music).

References.

[B1] M Boyce, The Parthian Gōsān and Iranian Minstrel Tradition, JRAS 9, 1957, pp. 10-45.

[B2] E G Brown. A Literary History of Persia: From the Earliest Times until Firdawsi. T. Fisher Unwin, 1908.

[C] A Christensen, La vie musicale dans la civilisation des Sassanides, Bulletin de l'Association Française des Amis de l'Orient, 1936, pp. 24-45.

[DKA] P Delougaz, H J Kantor, and A Alizadeh. Chogha Mish. Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1996.

[E] J Eberly. Al-Kimia: The Mystical Islamic Essence of the Sacred Art of Alchemy (Sophia Perennis, 2005).

[F] H Farhat. The dastgah concept in Persian music. University of California, Los Angeles, 1965.

[FP] S Fatemi and A H Pourjavadi. Aghajan. Daneshnameh ye Iran. 2020.

[G] M Gharasou. Iran: Music of the Qajar Era (Paris, 2012).

[L] M R Lotfi: Musique Vocale d'Iran: Radif du Maître Abdollah Davami (Dastgah Shur), with two gramophone disks (vocals of Nasrollah Nasehpour Accompanied on Tar by Mohammad Reza Lotfi), Persian Calligraphy on the Cover of the Book by Hossein Mirkhani, the Graphics on the Cover of the Book by Reza Derakhshani, Tehran's Gutenberg Publications, Tehran, 1976.

[M1] H Mashhoun, Tarikh-e Musighi-ye Iran (Tehran, 2009).

[M2] H Meisami, Haji Molla Abdolkarim Jenab Qazvini and his Role in the Qajar Music (Tehran, 2011).

[M3] L Miller. Music and Song in Persia (RLE Iran B): The Art of Avaz. Routledge, 2012.

[N1] N Nasehpour. An Annotation for a Treatise on Music by Qutb al-Din Shirazi: Dorrat al-Taj Le-qerrat al-Dabbaj, in the Persian language, Iranian Academy of the Arts Publishing. (Tehran, 2008).

[N2] B Nettl. The Radif of Persian Music: Studies of Structure and Cultural Context, rev. ed. Champaign, Ill.: Elephant and Cat (1992).

[R] S A Rashid, Mesopotamien, Musikgeschichte in Bildern II, 2, Leipzig, 1984.

[W] O Wright. Music Theory in the Safavid Era: The taqsīm al-naġamāt. Routledge, 2018.