History of Persian Calligraphy

My motivation for writing a brief note on the history of Persian calligraphy stems from several personal reasons. Firstly, my father, Ostad Nasrollah Nasehpour, often took me and other family members to various art exhibitions, including those featuring Persian calligraphy. Secondly, my father was a prosodist and a prominent vocalist, and our home was always filled with music and poetry. Naturally, Persian calligraphy was a significant presence in our household.

My father had many artist friends, including prominent figures in Persian calligraphy such as Gholam Hossein Amirkhani, Yadollah Kaboli, Mohammad Ali Sabzehkar, Mehdi Fallah, Esrafil Shirchi, and Bijan Bijani. He also had other calligrapher friends like Nahid Farasat (the daughter of Mohammad Zaman Farasat), Mohammad Mirzaei, Hossein Bakhtiari (brother of the renowned calligrapher Javad Bakhtiari), Rahim Mazdarani, and Ali Jaferi. Additionally, my tonbak teacher, Ostad Nasser Farhagfar, was also a calligrapher, which further sparked my interest in this art form. Consequently, I was acquainted with Persian calligraphy since childhood. Now, I am going to briefly outline the history of Persian scripts and calligraphy, one of the most beautiful and original art forms of Persian culture.

Persian calligraphy has a rich history that dates back to ancient times. The Elamites, who lived in what is now southwestern Iran, used cuneiform script, which is one of the earliest forms of writing. This script was characterized by wedge-shaped strokes made on clay tablets or carved into stone.

During the Elamite period, which spanned from around 2700 to 539 BCE, cuneiform was used for various purposes, including administrative and ceremonial inscriptions. The Elamites adopted and adapted cuneiform from their Mesopotamian neighbors, and it played a significant role in their culture and communication [N].

Although cuneiform is quite different from the elegant scripts that later developed in Persian calligraphy, it laid the groundwork for the evolution of writing in the region. Over time, as different empires rose and fell, new scripts emerged, eventually leading to the development of the beautiful Persian calligraphy styles we know today [A2].

In the pre-Islamic era, various scripts were employed for different purposes, such as inscriptions on monuments, coins, and seals. One of the earliest known scripts is Old Persian cuneiform, which was used during the Achaemenid Empire (circa 500-600 BCE). This script featured wedge-shaped characters and was primarily utilized for monumental inscriptions [K2].

Another significant script from this period is the Avestan script, developed in the 3rd century CE for writing the hymns of Zoroaster. This script was used to transcribe the Avesta, the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism. Unlike later scripts, Avestan letters were written separately and not connected to each other, similar to Latin scripts [H].

The Pahlavi script, used during the Sassanian Empire (224-651 CE), is another important script from this era. It evolved from the Aramaic script and was used for various administrative and religious texts [G1].

Persian calligraphy, renowned for its elegance and fluidity, has its roots in ancient scripts such as Old Persian cuneiform and Pahlavi. However, a significant transformation occurred after the Islamic conquest of Persia in 651 AD, when the Arabic script was adopted and modified to suit the Persian language. This transition marked the replacement of older scripts, like Pahlavi, with a modified Arabic script. Originally consisting of 28 characters, the Arabic alphabet was adapted to include four additional letters to accommodate Persian phonetics, resulting in the 32-letter Persian alphabet used today. This adaptation led to the development of several distinct styles of Persian calligraphy, each with its own unique characteristics [M].

In the early stages of Persian calligraphy, six primary scripts were developed: Mohaqqaq, Reyhan, Sols (also known as Thuluth), Naskh, Toqi, and Reqa. These scripts are attributed to the renowned Abu Ali Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Muqla (885-940) and his brother, Abu Abdullah Hasan ibn Ali ibn Muqla, both prominent Persian calligraphers of the Abbasid era, originally from Shiraz. These scripts were widely used for several centuries. Over time, Persian calligraphy evolved, leading to the development of new styles such as Ta'liq and Nasta'liq, which became prominent in later periods.

The Naskh script, celebrated for its legibility and elegance, holds a significant place in the history of Persia (modern-day Iran). Derived from the earlier Kufic script, Naskh quickly gained popularity due to its readability and suitability for both administrative documents and the Quran. The daughter of Ibn Muqla was a calligrapher, perhaps the first known female Persian calligrapher. The other prominent Persian (Kurdish) female calligrapher was Fakhr-un-Nisa (d. 1112) from the Persian city of Dinawar [K1].

In Persia, Naskh became the primary script for religious texts, literature, and official documents. Its compact and rounded form made it ideal for transcribing books and other lengthy texts. Over time, Persian calligraphers refined and adapted Naskh, further enhancing its prominence in Persian calligraphy. One of the master calligraphers who significantly refined the Naskh script and elevated it to new artistic heights was Yaqut al-Musta'simi (c. 1221 - 1298), a pupil of Safi al-Din al-Urmawi (c. 1216-1294).

Safi al-Din al-Urmawi was a multifaceted Persian scholar known for his contributions to music, literature, and calligraphy. He studied at the Mustansiriyya school in Baghdad, where he excelled in various disciplines, including calligraphy. Al-Urmawi's skill in calligraphy was highly regarded, and he served as an official scribe and librarian for the Abbasid caliph al-Musta'sim.

In addition to his calligraphic talents, al-Urmawi was also a celebrated musician and music theorist. His work in these fields further highlights his diverse intellectual pursuits and his significant impact on the cultural heritage of the Islamic world. See also, History of Persian Vocal Music.

Today, Naskh remains a foundational script in Persian calligraphy, admired for its clarity and aesthetic appeal.

Ta'liq emerged in the 12th century as a result of combining the Naskh and Reqa scripts. Developed to meet the needs of the expanding bureaucratic system, it was particularly suited for writing Persian. Ta'liq is characterized by its flowing and cursive style, making it ideal for official documents and correspondence. Its connected letters and curvilinear elements allowed for faster writing. By the late 13th century, Ta'liq had reached its definitive form and was widely used in the chanceries of Persian states. In the 14th century, Ta'liq evolved further with the creation of Shekasteh Ta'liq (broken Ta'liq), which was even more cursive and simplified. This style was perfected by calligraphers like Taj al-Din Salmani and Abd-al-Hayy Astarabadi.

Nasta'liq, one of the most elegant and fluid styles of Persian calligraphy, dates back to the 14th century. The name Nasta'liq is a combination of the words Naskh and Ta'liq, reflecting the belief that it was developed by merging these scripts. Mir Ali Tabrizi, a master calligrapher of the Timurid period, is often credited with perfecting Nasta'liq, known for its elongated horizontal strokes and rounded forms.

However, Elaine Wright offers a different perspective. She traced the evolution of Nasta'liq in 14th-century Persia, showing it developed gradually among scribes in Shiraz. According to her research, Nasta'liq originated from Naskh alone, not by combining Naskh and Ta'liq. Wright found a document by Jafar Tabrizi (c. 1430) explaining that Shirazi scribes modified Naskh by altering certain letters and introducing variations in line thickness, creating a new script. Tabrizi scribes later refined this script, and Khwaja Mir Ali Tabrizi perfected it [B].

Sultan Ali Mashhadi, a master calligrapher of the Timurid court in Herat during the late 15th century, played a pivotal role in the refinement and popularization of the Nasta'liq script. Known for his exceptional skill, he trained numerous pupils who went on to become illustrious calligraphers themselves. His works were highly revered, and he authored "Adab-e Khatt" ("Etiquette of Calligraphy") in 1514, a treatise on the art and teaching of calligraphy. Sultan Ali's influence extended beyond his lifetime, solidifying his legacy as one of the great masters of Persian calligraphy.

Several Persian calligraphers, including Mir Ali Heravi and Abd al-Samad Shirazi, migrated to India during the Mughal Empire and made significant contributions to the art of calligraphy. These calligraphers not only brought their skills to India but also helped blend Persian and Indian artistic traditions, leaving a lasting legacy on Mughal art and culture [S2].

Other notable Persian calligraphers who moved to India include Abd al-Rashid al-Daylami and his student Ashraf Mazandarani. Abd al-Rashid al-Daylami, a renowned Persian calligrapher, served under the Mughal ruler Shah Jahan (1628-1658) and was highly regarded for his expertise in the Nasta'liq script. Mohammad Sa'id Ashraf Mazandarani, commonly known as Ashraf Mazandarani, migrated to India during the Mughal period and became one of the last prominent Persian poets and calligraphers at the Mughal court.

During the Safavid era, several Persian female calligraphers flourished. Examples of female calligraphers from this period include Fatemeh Sultan bint Maqsud Ali and her sister Zeynab. However, one of the most prominent calligraphers of this era was Marjan al-Katib al-Islami, a notable female Persian calligrapher who lived during the 17th century. She was active around 1670 and is recognized for her significant contributions to Persian calligraphy during this time [K1].

One of the prominent figures in Persian calligraphy is Mir Emad Hassani, who significantly advanced the Nasta'liq script. Born in 1554 in Qazvin, Iran, he studied under Isa Rangkar, Malek Deylami, and Mohammad Hossein Tabrizi. Mir Emad's works played a crucial role in shaping the development of this elegant script. One of the most important aspects of Mir Emad's legacy is that he trained many pupils in calligraphy. Some of his notable students include Nur-al-Din Mohammad Lahiji, Abd-al-Jabbar Esfahani, Abu-Torab Esfahani, Mohammad Saleh Khatun Abadi, Abd-al-Rashid Daylami, and his daughter, Goharshad. These students went on to become prominent calligraphers themselves, further spreading and refining the Nasta'laq script that Mir Emad perfected.

Qazvin was the capital of the Safavid Empire for over forty years (1555–1598) under Shah Tahmasb I. This period saw a flourishing of arts and culture, including calligraphy. The city is the birthplace of several renowned calligraphers, most notably Mir Emad Hassani, who is considered one of the greatest masters of the Nasta'liq script. His work significantly contributed to the perfection and popularity of this script. Consequently, Qazvin is considered the capital of Persian calligraphy.

Shekasteh Nasta'liq, also known as cursive Nasta'liq, is a derivative of the Nasta'liq script that emerged in the 17th century. This style was developed to provide more flexibility and speed in writing, making it ideal for informal and rapid transcription. Some consider Morteza Qoli Khan Shamlu (1591-1649), the governor of Herat, and others Mohammad Shafi' Heravi (1587-1670), to be the inventors of this script. Abdol Mohammad Khan Irani believes that Shekasteh Nasta'liq emerged during the Safavid era and that Morteza Qoli Khan Shamlu developed it from Nasta'liq. He also acknowledges that Mohammad Shafi' Heravi, the secretary of Morteza Qoli Khan, perfected it. Darvish Abdol Majid Taleqani (c. 1737/8–1771/2) brought Shekasteh Nasta'liq to its peak of perfection [I].

During the Qajar era (1781-1925), Persian calligraphy flourished under the patronage of the Qajar rulers. Notable calligraphers like Mirza Gholam Reza Esfahani popularized Shekasteh Nasta'liq. His masterpieces are still highly esteemed today. Other prominent calligraphers of this period include Mirza Mohammad Reza Kalhor who contributed significantly to the rich and diverse body of work by blending traditional and contemporary styles [G2].

Siyah Mashq, meaning "black practice," is a unique form of Persian calligraphy. It involves filling a sheet of paper entirely with writing, often using diagonal words and letters arranged in various directions. Originating as a practice method for calligraphers to refine their skills, it became popular during the Safavid era (16th-17th centuries) and saw a revival in the 19th century under Qajar ruler Nasir al-Din Shah [E].

Since 1950, with the efforts of prominent Iranian calligaphers Ali Akbar Kaveh, Ebrahim Bouzari, Seyed Hossein Mirkhani, and his brother, Seyed Hassan Mirkhani, and with the dedication of Dr. Mehdi Bayani, a researcher and university professor, along with several other cultural enthusiasts, and in collaboration with the Ministry of Culture and Art of the time, the Iranian Calligraphers Association was established and launched, adorned with the name of the "Free Calligraphy Classes". This authentic and popular institution received its official charter under the name of the Iranian Calligraphers Association on September 10, 1967, and continued its brilliant and influential activities. At the time of writing this note in September 2024, the presidency of the Iranian Calligraphers Association is held by Gholam Hossein Amirkhani, a highly esteemed figure in Persian calligraphy. Ostad Amirkhani has also been pivotal in the Iranian Calligraphers Association, serving as the head of its Supreme Council and a member of its Board of Trustees. Renowned for his mastery of the Nasta'liq script, Amirkhani has created significant works, including Persian poetry and religious texts. His contributions are internationally recognized, and he has participated in over a hundred exhibitions worldwide.

Persian calligraphy is a dynamic and evolving art form. Contemporary artists are continually pushing its boundaries, integrating modern techniques and concepts while honoring traditional styles. This evolution keeps the art form vibrant and relevant, allowing it to resonate with new generations and diverse audiences.

One notable figure in this context is Parviz Tanavoli, a pioneering Iranian sculptor, painter, and educator. Tanavoli is a key member of the Saqqakhaneh School of Art, a neo-traditionalist movement that blends contemporary practices with traditional Persian folk art forms. His work often incorporates calligraphic elements, most famously in his "Heech" (Nothingness) series, where he reimagines calligraphy as both design and decoration. Tanavoli's innovative approach has significantly contributed to the modern evolution of Persian calligraphy, making it accessible and appealing to a global audience.

Naqashikhat, also known as Persian calligram, was founded by Sadeq Tabrizi in 1959. This modern calligraphic style blends traditional Persian scripts with contemporary artistic elements. Other notable artists who furthered Naqashikhat include Faramarz Pilaram, Reza Mafi, Nasrollah Afjei, and Mohammad Ehsai.

For a group of Iranian artists, calligraphy served primarily as a visual element, with little emphasis on the meanings behind the words. This artistic approach is evident in the works of many members of this group. Among them, Hossein Zenderoudi stands out as the most pioneering figure in the use of calligraphy [A1].

Mo'alla is a modern Persian calligraphy script created by Hamid Ajami in 1999 [S1]. This script is known for its fluidity and elegance, blending traditional Persian calligraphic elements with contemporary aesthetics. Mo'alla stands out for its unique style, which emphasizes artistic expression and visual harmony.

Bahman Panahi is a Franco-Iranian calligrapher and musician, holding a Ph.D. in musicology from Sorbonne University. He is renowned for his unique blend of calligraphy and music, a concept he developed called "Musicalligraphy".

While historical Persian female calligraphers are rare, Persian calligraphy has become quite popular among Iranian women in recent times. Not only can we mention contemporary Iranian female calligraphers such as Zohreh Abbasi, Parastou Forouhar, Golnaz Fathi, Seyedeh Soghra Hosseini, Pouran Jinchi, Elaheh Khatami, Fariba Maqsudi, Zohreh Raissadati, and Azhar Shoraka, but today, half of the members of the Iranian Calligraphers Association are esteemed lady artists.

Art Center Gallery, situated in the garden of the Iranian Calligraphers Association in the Hekmat-Dezashib neighborhood of Tehran, began its activities in 1996 by introducing selected contemporary Iranian artists. Founded by Vahid Malek, the gallery has been focused from the beginning on discovering, introducing, and supporting young artists.

Afternotes.

I am fully aware that this note is far from being complete, even as a brief overview of the history of Persian calligraphy. Even a concise history of Persian scripts and calligraphy would require a voluminous textbook, as the history of the Persian language and literature is so extensive that even a lengthy paper cannot adequately cover the essential topics of Persian calligraphy. However, the main purpose of this brief note is to introduce its history, with the hope that interested readers will be encouraged to explore the references provided at the end of the note to gain a comprehensive understanding of the various developments and nuances of Persian calligraphy.

References.

[A1] A Aghdashloo, Az Khoshiha va Hasratha, Tehran, 1999.

[A2] J Alvarez-Mon, Elamite Traditions. In: A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire, 2021.

[B] S S Blair, Islamic calligraphy. Edinburgh University Press, 2020.

[E] M Ekhtiar, Practice makes perfect: The art of calligraphy exercises (siyāh mashq) in Iran. Muqarnas 23 (2006): 107-130.

[G1] W Geiger, Grundriss der iranischen Philologie. Vol. 2. KJ Trübner, 1904.

[G2] H R Ghelichkhani, A Handbook of Persian Calligraphy and Related Arts. Vol. 109. Brill, 2021.

[H] K Hoffmann, Avestan language i-iii, Encyclopædia Iranica, III/1, pp. 47-62.

[I] A Irani, Peydayesh-e Khat va Khattatan, Tehran, 1984.

[K1] H Kazan, Dünden bugüne hanım hattatlar. İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi, 2010.

[K2] A Kuhrt, The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period. Routledge, 2013.

[M] M Meidani, Persian Calligraphy: A Corpus Study of Letterforms. Routledge, 2019.

[N] E O Negahban, Persian Calligraphy. Expedition Magazine 31, no. 1, 1989.

[S1] A S Sarbandi, Navigating the Latent: Exploring the Potentials of Islamic Calligraphy with Generative Adversarial Networks. PhD diss., OCAD University, 2021.

[S2] P P Soucek, Persian artists in Mughal India: influences and transformations. Muqarnas (1987): 166-181.

Keywords and phrases. Iranian calligraphy, Iranian calligraphers, Persian calligraphy, Persian calligraphers, Naskh, Ta'liq, Nasta'liq, Shekasteh Ta'liq, Shekasteh Nasta'liq, Naqashikhat, Persian calligram, Mo'alla, Iranian Calligraphers Association.